Mazmanian, Schretter and their colleagues, Xi may be monitoring the flies' metabolic state, including levels of nutrients, and then signaling to
octopamine neurons whether they should turn on or off, resulting in changes in behavior.
One such neuromodulator,
octopamine, is a monohydroxylic correspondent of norepinephrine found in nervous systems of invertebrates and vertebrates.
For example, dopamine and
octopamine modulate the acute activating effects of nicotine on locomotion and the startle response [261, 363].
These mixtures can also action openly as neurotoxic compounds, disturbing
octopamine receptors or acetylcholine esterase activity (Isman, 2000).
For example, the emerald cockroach wasp injects its cockroach host with a venomous cocktail that contains the neurotransmitter
octopamine. This puts the cockroach into a sleep-like state, at which point the wasp drags it off to its lair and lays eggs in its abdomen.
Instead of killing off marine growth, it is said to temporarily stimulate the
octopamine receptor in the larvae of molluscs, causing them to be harmlessly repelled from the hull.
The mechanism of action for amitraz as an insecticide is not completely clear but appears to involve alpha-adrenergic agonism, interference with
octopamine (the invertebrate equivalent of norepinephrine) action in the central nervous system, uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation, and inhibition of monoamine oxidases and prostaglandin synthesis [Bonsall and Turnbull 1983; California Environmental Protection Agency (CalEPA) 1995].
pulegium against Bruchus rufimanus can be attributed to the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase neurotransmitters such as 41, 48 and 49
octopamine.
aurantium contain nearly 10% of flavonoids and five adrenergic amines: synephrine, hodermine,
octopamine, tyramine and N-methylthyramine.
In addition, high tyramine and
octopamine levels present in the plasma and platelets of patients with migraine support the role of hypothalamic and limbic dysfunctions in the pathophysiology of migraine (7,8).
The major chemical constituents reported in Citrus fruits are flavonoids including hesperitin, hesperidin, neohesperidin, naringenin, tangeritin, auranetin, quercetin, nobiletin [32], limonene, myrcene [33], AY- sitosterol [34] and adrenergic amines including synephrine,
octopamine and tyramine [35].